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Influx of Pakistani refugees could spark crisis – ministry official
About this event: World Environmental Day Competition
Related to country: Afghanistan
About the book: "From the Barrel of a Gun: The United States and the War against Zimbabwe, 1965-1980"

Translations available in: English (original) | French | Spanish | Italian | German | Portuguese | Swedish | Russian | Dutch | Arabic

KABUL, 6 October 2008 (Reporter) - Any increase in the flow of refugees from northwestern Pakistan into eastern parts of Afghanistan could lead to a humanitarian crisis unless international aid organisations deliver urgent assistance, a senior official at Afghanistan's Ministry of Refugees and Returnees Affairs (MoRRA) has said.

"We are deeply concerned about insecurity in the Tribal Areas [of Pakistan] and the influx of Pakistani refugees into Afghanistan," Abdul Qader Ahadi, deputy minister in the MoRRA, told Reporter in Kabul on 5 October.

The UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) said over 3,900 families (about 20,000 individuals) had abandoned their homes in the Bajaur Agency of Pakistan's Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and sought refuge in Afghanistan's eastern province of Kunar over the past few weeks.

The Afghan government's warning echoes similar concerns raised by others.

"The continued fighting in southern Afghanistan and the more recent conflict in northern Pakistan are creating a very dangerous situation in the region for civilians trying to find refuge. With the end of the Muslim holy month of Ramadan, there is an expectation that even more civilians will leave their homes to avoid the fighting," Amnesty International said in a statement on 3 October.

Afghan refugees in FATA?

Armed clashes between Pakistani security forces and Islamist militants associated with the Taliban in FATA and elsewhere in Pakistan have affected local people and Afghan refugees living there, aid agencies said.

In a bid to clear the FATA of Islamist insurgents, the Pakistani government on 3 October reportedly called on Afghan refugees living in the Bajaur border region to vacate the area within three days.

Nader Farhad, a spokesman for the UNHCR in Kabul, said there were no confirmed reports of "registered Afghan refugees" living in the volatile Tribal Areas.

"UNHCR does not have access to the Tribal Areas and we are not aware of registered Afghan refugees there," Farhad told Reporter, adding that refugee camps in FATA were closed down in 2005 at the request of the Pakistani government.

"We have requested the Pakistani authorities to ensure that registered refugees who may still live in the FATA are not forced to return to Afghanistan," Farhad said, adding that the option to relocate elsewhere in Pakistan must be made available to refugees.

Both MoRRA and the UNHCR said any unregistered Afghans living in the FATA might be deemed eligible for forced deportation.

Humanitarian response

Afghan government bodies and several aid organisations, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross, have delivered food and non-food assistance to some Pakistani refugees in Kunar Province, the MoRRA said. No figures were available.

The UNHCR said it had distributed non-food items such as plastic sheets, blankets, jerry cans and lanterns to families and was coordinating aid activities for the Pakistani refugees.

October 6, 2008 | 9:37 AM Comments  1 comments

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Promising Business Growth Prompts New Management Hires At Interbank FX / IBFX.com

On the heels of more than 128 percent growth in 2007, IBFX (www.IBFX.com), a leading provider of online foreign currency (Forex) trading, recently announced the appointments of Daren Thayne, Chris An and Carrie Matteson to the company's growing management team.
Daren Thayne, who joined the company in November of 2007, came from The Generations Network (formerly MyFamily.com), where he served as

May 30, 2008 | 6:05 AM Comments  0 comments

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THE UNIVERSAL FLAG
About this event: World Environmental Day Competition
Related to country: Nigeria

Translations available in: English (original) | French | Spanish | Italian | German | Portuguese | Swedish | Russian | Dutch | Arabic

The Universal Flag was created as a symbol of our Interconnection and Oneness with All. It is a signpost to help us remember the Truth of who we are. By consciously remembering this truth, we can begin to eliminate the fear and violence that exists, and make our world a more peaceful and harmonious place for our children and future generations.

The Universal Flag embraces All, and can therefore, never represent any one particular group, race, religion, creed, or anything that creates the illusion of separateness. It is a symbol that transcends differences, while honoring the uniqueness and commonality of all people.

April 28, 2008 | 7:07 AM Comments  1 comments

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Conflict case studies - Asia
Related to country: Cambodia

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Page contents


South East Asia
(Cambodia, Indonesia)

South Asia
(India, Nepal, Sri Lanka)

Central Asia
(Central Asian Republics, Afghanistan)


Cambodia
This article provides a chronology of Cambodian conflict from World War II to 2002, including the genocide and the role of the international community in the rise and fall of the Khmer Rouge.

Kiernan B., 2002, 'Conflict in Cambodia, 1945-2002', Critical Asian Studies, 34 (4), pp. 483-495
How did the geo-politics of the Far East, and in particular the policies of the US and China affect the recent history of Cambodia? Why did the United Nations prevaricate about recognising the genocide? While confrontation continues what are the related fates of democracy, the environment, and the rule of law in Cambodia’s development? This chapter from Critical Asian Studies on “Conflict and Change in Cambodia” introduces this investigation by explaining the complex historical background since 1945 and by summarising the other contributions.
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The following two articles question the compatibility of economic liberalisation, advocated by donor agencies, with post-conflict reconstruction and security sector reform in Cambodia.

Hendrickson, D., 2001, 'Globalisation, Insecurity and Post-War Reconstruction: Cambodia's Precarious Transition', IDS Bulletin, vol. 32 no. 2, 2001, pp. 98-106
Taking Cambodia as an example, this article argues that imposing rapid marketisation on a weak political and legal framework can increase socio-economic insecurity among vulnerable groups. Post-war reconstruction focusing on macro-economic stability exacerbated political tensions, while donors' desire to down-size the civil service conflicted with one of the key stabilising features of the first post-war coalition - the integration of members of the two incoming parties into the administration and security apparatus.
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Hendrickson, D., 2001, 'Cambodia's Security-Sector Reforms: Limits of a Downsizing Strategy', Conflict Security and Development, vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 67-82
The IMF's loan assistance to Cambodia is conditional on economic liberalisation and stabilisation programmes, including a reduction in public spending. Military expenditure was judged excessive and thus a key security sector reform was downsizing. Demobilisation reforms were through the Cambodia Veteran's Assistance Programme (CVAP), re-established by the World Bank in 1999 after political obstacles hindered its implementation in 1994. However, a paper from the Conflict, Security and Development Group argues lessons were not learnt from previous, failed, reform efforts.
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Indonesia
This document takes an empirical approach to considering the nature of communal violence in Indonesia before and after the fall of President Soeharto in 1998.

Varshney, A., Panggabean, R. and Tadjoeddin, M.Z., 2004, 'Patterns of Collective Violence in Indonesia (1990-2003)', United Nations Support Facility for Indonesian Recovery (UNSFIR), Jakarta
Regardless of violent incidents, no systematic reports on conflict have been published by the Indonesian government, which has remained intent on maintaining the appearance of order and stability. How widespread is collective violence? What patterns of can be observed? This paper by the United Nations Support Facility for Indonesian Recovery is based on the first database ever constructed on group violence in Indonesia (in the period 1990-2003), and identifies various national, regional and local patterns of collective violence.
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This IDEA report considers challenges that Indonesia faces in the process of democratisation and identifies key areas for advocacy, policy and reform.

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 2000, 'Democratization in Indonesia: An Assessment', International IDEA: Stockholm
The fall of President Soeharto in 1998 triggered and created opportunity for democratic reform in Indonesia. What are the compelling democratisation issues for the government and the people of Indonesia? What recommendations can be made about the direction of the ongoing reform? This paper, a product of the Forum for Democratic Reform facilitated by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, identifies the core issues for review and offers extensive recommendations for democratic reform in Indonesia.
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India
Despite the establishment of a secular state on independence, India continues to be troubled by internal inter-religious conflicts. The diverse population of India's Northeastern provinces has witnessed insurgent, secessionist and tribal conflict since its relative isolation from the rest of the country on Independence. This survey details conflict backgrounds, dynamics and official and civil society resolution attempts across the seven 'sister-states' of Northern India.

Sahni, A., 2002, 'Survey of Conflicts and Resolution in India's Northeast', Faultlines: Writings on Conflict and Resolution, Vol 12, South Asia Terrorism Portal and Institute for Conflict Management
India's Northeast has a long history of conflicts, corruption and terrorist violence. How are the conflicts to be defined and what methods of conflict resolution are appropriate? How should development and security be promoted in the region? While there have been several governmental peace initiatives, multi-track diplomacy and non-governmental organisations' peace activities are at an incipient stage. International interventions - direct or indirect - in any conflict resolution processes are not encouraged by the government, though mediated developmental interventions are sanctioned.
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This report reviews one of the most recent and disturbing incidents of communal violence in Gujarat, western India, 2002, including allegations of state collusion and recommendations for action.

Human Rights Watch, 2002, ''We Have No Orders To Save You': State Participation and Complicity in Communal Violence in Gujarat', Human Rights Watch report, 14, No 3 (C)
Communal violence rose in the state of Gujarat following the torching of two train cars carrying Hindu activists in February 2002. This report from Human Rights Watch overviews the fervent attacks, analyses the context of growing Hindu nationalism and state participation in violence, and provides recommendations to local and international powers to restore security and stability in the region
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Nepal
This document provides more detailed background information about the conflict and the 2003 ceasefire.

International Crisis Group, 2003, 'Nepal Backgrounder: Ceasefire - Soft Landing or Strategic Pause?', ICG Asia Report No 50, ICG, Brussels
The announcement of a ‘code of conduct’ which was reached between the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) and the government forces signalled an opportunity for a genuine peace in Nepal. However, each side continued to accuse the other of persistent violations and the situation remains fragile. What are the chances for genuine peace and stability in Nepal? This report by the International Crisis Group lays out the background of the conflict and analyses the positions of the various actors, both domestic and international.
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This brief paper presents an update after the collapse of the 2003 ceasefire.

International Crisis Group, 2003, 'Nepal: Back to the Gun', ICG Asia Briefing Paper October 2003, ICG, Brussels
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Sri Lanka
Twenty years of ethno-political conflict has precipitated insecurity and limited the impact of development across Sri Lanka. This conflict assessment analyses the conflict and resolution attempts in Sri Lanka in order to understand better the links between conflict and donor poverty reduction attempts.

Goodhand, J., 2001, 'Conflict Assessments: Aid, Conflict and Peace Building in Sri Lanka', Conflict, Security and Development Group, University of London, London
Donors increasingly recognise the need to understand better the links between development, conflict and poverty, and to design programmes that address the roots of conflict. This report for the Conflict, Security and Development Group at the University of London analyses how donors could improve their strategies in Sri Lanka, where violent conflict has prevented the country from reaching its potential.
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The following paper draws lessons from recent peace process attempts to make recommendations to all stakeholders for successful future peace negotiations.

Ferdinands, T., Rupesinghe, K., Saravanamutthu, et al., 2004, 'The Sri Lanka Peace Process at a Crossroads: Lessons, Opportunities and Ideas for Principled Negotiations and Conflict Transformation', Centre for Policy Alternatives, Colombo
The Government of Sri Lanka (GoSL) and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) need a negotiated settlement to the island's ethno-political conflict. There have been more than five decades of conflict for a more inclusive state and nearly two decades of civil war. What lessons, opportunities and ideas came from the Oslo Communiqué that could enhance the next phase of the peace process? Five authors, employed by Non-governmental organisations working in Sri Lanka, wrote this discussion document in a personal capacity.
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Central Asian Republics
The short history of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan since the demise of the Soviet Union has been turbulent, and the future appears unsettled. The region is troubled by ethnic tensions, border disputes, poverty and natural resource shortages. This report focuses on border disputes as a potential source of conflict.

International Crisis Group, 2002, 'Central Asia: Border Disputes and Conflict Potential', ICG Asia Report No 33, ICG, Osh/Brussels
How can peaceful resolution of border disputes be achieved? What would the benefits be? This study by the International Crisis Group describes how the borders of the states of Central Asia, drawn up by the Soviets in 1920s, often followed neither natural geographic boundaries nor strict ethnic lines. For independent states these international borders create considerable conflict. Following a decade of mainly antagonistic attempts to re-define them and resolve the conflicts, this report suggests alternative ways to proceed.
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This report explores state relations with Islam in case studies from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and the potential this raises for instability.

International Crisis Group, 2003, 'Central Asia: Islam and the State', ICG Asia Report No 59, ICG, Osh/Brussels
To avoid future instability, Central Asian states need to re-examine their policies towards Islam. This report from the International Crisis Group looks at Islam in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. It argues that these governments need to undermine support for extremist groups through policies of political liberalisation, economic reform and effective governance.
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The following report is the first of a series of case studies on the Global Conflict Prevention Pool, covering Chechnya, Georgia and Kyrgyzstan.

Austin, G. and Bergne, P., 2004, 'Russia and the Former Soviet Union', Evaluation of the Conflict Prevention Pools Case Study, DFID
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Vaux, T., and Goodhand, J., 2001, 'Conflict Assessments: Disturbing Connections: Aid and Conflict in Kyrgyzstan', The Conflict, Security and Development Group, University of London, London
How do development assistance and conflict dynamics interact in Central Asia? This report, published by the Conflict, Security and Development Group at the University of London, looks at sources of conflict in Kyrgyzstan from the viewpoint of the aid donor. It analyses how development policy and practice could be made more sensitive to the dynamics of conflict and peace.
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Cramer, C. and Goodhand, J., 2002, 'Try Again, Fail Again, Fail Better? War, the State and the 'Post-Conflict' Challenge in Afghanistan', Development and Change, vol. 33, no. 5, pp.885-909
Peace and reconstruction in Afghanistan require a significant expansion of institutionalised economic interdependence. This must build on existing patterns of interdependence, despite these being forged in a war economy. The article argues that an effective, centralised state, with a clear monopoly of violence, is necessary. This argument challenges standard international policy paradigms of reconstruction and points to an alternative basis for international engagement in Afghanistan.
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Afghanistan
The recent history of Afghanistan is narrated by religious based conflict, most recently punctuated by the US attack against the Taliban regime. This essay provides an historical and political analysis of conflict and state formation in Afghanistan in order to inform future international engagement.

Strategies for peace-building in Afghanistan were articulated in Bonn in 2001. Responding to the Bonn Agreement, this paper advocates a long-term perspective on peace-building and reconstruction in Afghanistan.

Wimmer, A. and Schetter, C. 2002, 'State - Formation First: Recommendations for Reconstruction and Peace-Making in Afghanistan', Journal of International Development, Volume 15, Issue 5 , pp. 525 - 539
This discussion paper recommends revisions of the programme for reconstruction and peace-making in Afghanistan, as defined at conferences in Bonn and Tokyo. The programme needs to take a more long-term perspective; have a clearer strategic vision and be better adapted to Afghanistan's situation. It must be designed to overcome political fractures through state-building rather than through 'civil society', the current focus of development policies. Recent Security Council decisions are moving in the right direction, opting for aid to be coordinated through the transitional government and suitable local authorities rather than a special UN organisation.

This report critically assesses the progress in peace-building and reconstruction two years after Bonn, and considers the policy agenda that lies ahead.

Suhrke, A., Harpviken, K.B. and Strand, A., 2004, 'Conflictual Peacebuilding: Afghanistan Two Years after Bonn', Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI), Norway
The Bonn Agreement established a transitional regime for Afghanistan. How far has peace-building progressed after two decades of conflict? Have the strategies been right? This paper from the Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI), Norway reviews the developments since Bonn. It recommends new guidelines for peace-building strategies and a more specific role for Norway’s involvement in Afghanistan.


February 21, 2008 | 9:41 AM Comments  0 comments

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Conflict case studies - Africa
Related to country: Nigeria

Translations available in: English (original) | French | Spanish | Italian | German | Portuguese | Swedish | Russian | Dutch | Arabic

Page contents

Southern Africa
(Angola, Mozambique)
Great Lakes
(Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Rwanda, Uganda)
West Africa
(Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone)
East Africa
(Somalia, Somaliland and Horn of Africa, Sudan)


Angola
After nearly half a century of conflict, Angola has reached a state of incomplete peace through military means. This collection of essays provides several perspectives on the nature of the conflict, the progress to peace and options for the future.

Meijer, G., 2004, 'From Military Peace to Social Justice: The Angolan Peace Process', Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, Issue 15, Conciliation Resources, London
What lessons can be learned from the Angolan peace process? This report, published by Conciliation Resources in its Accord series, argues that the military peace brokered by the Angolan government may have consolidated their power as the victorious party, but that the 'peace through war approach' has hindered the process of democratisation, which relies on dialogue and negotiation. The secessionist war in the enclave of Cabinda further demonstrates that peace cannot be achieved through military force. A shift from military peace to social justice is needed to fully resolve conflict in Angola.

Mozambique
After many years of conflict and extended peace negotiations, the General Peace Agreement for Mozambique was signed in 1992, marking the start of the transition to peace. The following resources cover in turn the origins of the conflict, the process of building peace and the development of the political party system and its implications for future democratisation.

Saul, J.S., 1999, 'Inside From the Outside? The Roots and Resolution of Mozambique's Un/Civil War', in Civil Wars in Africa: Roots and Resolution, Ch. 5, ed. T.M. Ali, pp. 122 - 166
This chapter, in Civil Wars in Africa: Roots and Resolution, outlines the roots of the Mozambican conflict by considering the relative importance of internal and external factors. This analysis leads to a consideration of how these parallel forces shaped the recent resolution of armed conflict, tracing the negotiations that lead to multi-party 'democratic' elections. In each stage of this peace process, it is demonstrated that both internal and external actors played prominent roles.

Armon, J. (ed), 1998, 'The Mozambican Peace Process in Perspective', Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, Issue Number 3, Conciliation Resources, London
An issue of 'Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives' brings together various articles recounting the history of Mozambique's anti-colonial and civil wars and the subsequent 1992 peace settlement. Mozambique's war was driven by both internal and external interests due to its links to the Cold War and conflicts with and among neighbouring states. Despite often unco-ordinated and incompatible agendas, the diverse initiatives by a wide range of state and non-state actors ensured the impetus of the peace process, resulting in the Rome talks and the 1992 General Peace Agreement (GPA). Future stability and reconciliation will depend on how successfully Mozambique's reconstruction process addresses both the poverty and political divisions that drove the war and the new tensions and trauma resulting from it.

Carbone, G.M., 2003, 'Emerging Pluralist Politics in Mozambique: The Frelimo-Remano Party System', Crisis States Programme Development Research Centre, Working Paper 23, Series No. 1, LSE, London
Multi-party politics emerged as an instrument for peace in Mozambique in 1992, marking an end to violent civil conflict and heralding a new era of democratic change. However, multi-party democracy continues to suffer from a lack of legitimacy in Mozambique. This article, published by the London School of Economics, argues that the overall transition towards a fully democratic and pluralist system has been limited, and that the crucial test for democracy in Mozambique centres on the actual turnover of power in future elections.

Burundi
Burundi has experienced several periods of violent conflict since independence; the most recent of these is the protracted civil conflict, which began in 1993. A long-running peace process has been assisted by high profile international figures. This article investigates economic interpretations for what is commonly considered an ethnic conflict.

Nkurunziza J. and Ngaruko F., 2000, 'An Economic Interpretation of Conflict in Burundi', Journal of African Economies, 9(3), pp. 370-409
What are the root causes of conflict in Burundi? This report commissioned by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) uses economic and political analyses to investigate the factors of the post-independence conflicts in Burundi. It argues that poverty, exclusion and the fight for control of limited resources have been underlying causes of the violence. To end the recurrence of war, the cycle of predation-rebellion-repression must be broken and there must be an end to impunity for war crimes.

This document stresses the key role of the international donor community in building peace in Burundi:

International Crisis Group, 2003, 'A Framework For Responsible Aid To Burundi';, ICG Africa Report No. 57, ICG, Brussels
The Burundian people, economy, and state structures have suffered heavily from a decade of fighting. As a ceasefire is set in place and the peace process gains momentum, the time is ripe for the international community to resume aid programmes. But how can donors also play a role in building peace? This document by the International Crisis Group examines the need for responsible aid and offers extensive recommendations to donors and the wider international community for the key role they can play in Burundi.

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
The DRC has experienced two waves violent conflict since 1996, giving rise to the highest death toll of any African conflict. The transition to peace continues to be fraught with crises. This briefing paper gives a recent update of events in the DRC.

International Crisis Group, 'Pulling Back from the Brink in the Congo', Africa Briefing July 2004, ICG, Brussels
The optimism surrounding political transition in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has been short-lived. The outbreak of violence in the Bukavu in 2004 serves as a stark reminder of the fragility of the peace process. This briefing paper, by the International Crisis Group, argues that renewed peace-building efforts in the Kivu regions are crucial to bring about lasting peace and stability. Donors can assist by supporting the transitional government, strengthening the mandate of the UN mission and by increasing pressure on Rwanda to cease all military activity in the region.

The following paper considers possibilities for peace-building that involve civilians not only as victims but as stakeholders in peace.

Kent, V. and McIntyre, A., 2004, 'From Protection to Empowerment: Civilians as Stakeholders in the Democratic Republic of the Congo', ISS Paper 84, Institute of Security Studies: South Africa
The importance of civilians as actors in conflict and supporters of the peace process needs to be acknowledged and re-defined if there is to be long-term stability and economic recovery in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). This paper by the Institute for Security Studies reveals the profound political importance of re-casting those perceived as 'victims' to understand and value their role as stakeholders, and suggests that the notion of mainstreaming must be broadened beyond the peacekeeping mandate to all aspects of the peace process.

This paper critiques the involvement of regional states in the DRC conflict, particularly the role of the Southern African Development Community (SADC).

Ngoma, N., 2004, 'Hawks, Doves or Penguins? A Critical Review of the SADC Military Intervention in the DRC', Institute for Security Studies Occasional Paper 88, Institute for Security Studies
The military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in 1998 by only certain member states of the South African Development Community (SADC) raised questions about the state of this grouping. What has been the impact of the varying responses on sub-regional cohesion and stability? This paper by the Institute of Security Studies examines the decisions taken by important actors in SADC and analyses the implications for the survival and future of SADC.

Rwanda
An estimated 800,000 Rwandans, mostly belonging to the minority Tutsi ethnic group, were killed within a period of 100 days in 1994. This article locates the genocide within the history of Rwandan state formation.

Mamandi, M., 1996, 'From Conquest to Consent as the Basis of State Formation: Reflections on Rwanda', New Left Review no. 216, pp. 3-36
This article studies the background of and options for the Rwandan genocide of 1994. It looks at the roots of the hostilities between the Bahutu and Batutsi and how relations shifted from one of Batutsi domination to their massacre at the hands of the Bahutu.

This article takes a provocative approach to the genocide by exploring Tutsi responsibility leading up to the conflict:

Kuperman, A., 2003, 'Explaining the Ultimate Escalation in Rwanda: How and Why Tutsi Rebels Provoked a Retaliatory Genocide', Paper presented at The American Political Science Association Conference, Philadelphia, PA
The field of genocide studies has tended to focus on explaining the actions of the perpetrators and to ignore the role of victim groups and third parties. This paper, prepared for a meeting of the American Political Science Association, attempts to rectify the current bias by re-examining the roots of the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. It highlights the strategic interaction of ethnic groups and the international community.

Uganda
Security for the people of Northern Uganda has been devastated by the brutality of the long running conflict between the Lord's Resistance Army and the Ugandan government. The following resources explore the reasons behind, and initiatives to end, the violence.

Lomo, Z. and Hovil, L., 2004, 'Behind the Violence: The War in Northern Uganda', Monograph No 99, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, South Africa
What are the roots of conflict in northern Uganda? This monograph, by the Institute for Security Studies, argues that the war emerged on two fronts: initially as a popular rebellion against the ruling National Resistance Movement (NRM) and later transformed by the insurgency of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA). The protracted nature of the war has created new conflict dynamics and led to serious consequences such as mass displacement and a military response that often fails to protect civilians. These consequences sustain a cycle of violence.

Lucima, O. (ed), 2002, 'Protracted Conflict, Elusive Peace: Initiatives to End the Violence in Northern Uganda', Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, Issue 11, Conciliation Resources, London
Since 1986, the violent conflict in Acholiland region of Northern Uganda has caused countless deaths and violations of human rights, and the destruction of economic and social infrastructure. What peace initiatives have been undertaken so far? In this publication by Conciliation Resources' Accord Programme, different authors explore the history of the conflict, provide insight into the main parties involved, document key peace initiatives and analyse some of the cross-cutting issues.

Liberia
Both of the following documents relate to Liberia's complex political emergency that lasted much of the 1990s. The first paper explores the causes and consequences of the complex political emergency.

Qutram, Q., 1999, 'Liberia: Roots and Fruits of the Emergency', Third World Quarterly, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 163 - 173
This paper discusses the origins and the political legacy of the 1990-1997 complex political emergency (CPE) in Liberia, a country which unlike most African states has never been a formal colony.
This journal issue charts and analyses the peace processes of the Liberian conflict.

Armon, J. and Carl, A. 1996, 'The Liberian Peace Process,' Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, vol. 1, no. 1., Conciliation Resources, London
This paper charts the progress of conflict resolution in Liberia. Hostilities began in 1989 when the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) attempted to oust Liberia's then dictator, President Doe. The retaliation and resultant war were brutal, with numerous massacres of civilians - often along ethnic lines, as the army and rebel movement each comprised rival ethnic groups.

Federal Republic of Nigeria: Strategic Conflict Assessment (SCA) Report, Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution, The Regent Ltd: Kaduna
Although Nigeria has been spared conflict on the scale experienced by many other African countries, it experiences a mass of relatively minor conflicts. This Strategic Conflict Assessment report from the Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution, funded by DFID, UNDP, USAID and the World Bank, aimed to develop a deeper understanding of the underlying causes of conflict in Nigeria and to develop new policy responses. It focuses on the interaction between resource competition and the corruption of the political system, and calls for action in the overall area of conflict prevention.

Nigeria
Nigeria has a long history of political instability and ethnic/religious tension. Since independence Nigeria has had 30 years of military rule, returning to civilian rule in 1999. This strategic conflict assessment analyses the causes, actors and dynamics of the conflict as well as responses and policy options.

This article focuses on Nigeria as a case study to understand ethnic conflict and proposes policy recommendations.

Leith, R. and Hussein, S., 2001, 'On Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict Management in Nigeria', African Journal on Conflict Resolution, 2 (1)
Ethnic conflict has been at the forefront of international political debates for the past decade. Is it possible to find practical solutions to reconcile diverse ethnic groups in the modern democratic state? This article examines the concept of ethnic conflict and the impact of variables such as governance, civil-military relations, economics and religion on ethnic identity. Through a case study of ethnic conflict in Nigeria, it advocates a ‘power-sharing model’ that promotes integration and co-operation as a means of overcoming differences and establishing a basis for dialogue.

Zack-Williams, A.B. 1999, 'Sierra Leone: the Political Economy of Civil War, 1991 - 1998,' Third World Quarterly, vol. 20, no.1, pp.143 - 162
This report analyses Sierra Leone's political and economic history since independence to find out what lessons can be learnt. Violence and corruption became institutional under the All People's Congress, which governed for 23 years. This led to a break down of civil society and democratic accountability.

Sierra Leone
Violence has played a leading role in Sierra Leone's post-independence history, recently characterised by the 1991-1997 civil war. This article explores the political and historical causal factors behind the recent conflict.

This paper provides a chronology of events up to 2002 and considers factors that supported peace-building initiatives in Sierra Leone.

Fitz-gerald, A.M., 2004, 'Security Sector Reform in Sierra Leone', Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform (GFN-SSR), Shrivenham, UK
There is a need for more comprehensive solutions to wider security sector challenges in conflict resolution. This report, from the Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform, provides an overview of the security reforms that were implemented in Sierra Leone. It serves as a set of guidelines for practitioners supporting similar programmes in the future. It argues that the different elements of a Security Sector Reform programme should be sequenced strategically.


Somalia, Somaliland and Horn of Africa
Clan-based conflict has contributed to unrest in the Horn of Africa since the unification of Somalia by colonial powers on independence. This paper provides an overview of key actors, events and peace attempts of the long running conflict.

Cornwell, R., 2004, 'Somalia: Fourteenth Time Lucky?', Occasional Paper 87, Institute for Security Studies
Somalia is one of the ongoing nation-building exercises which seems to have established itself as a permanent feature on the international landscape. After a succession of failed attempts, what is the likelihood that the current round of negotiations will achieve sustainable results? Compiled for the Institute for Security Studies, this paper provides an account of modern Somali history, charting the perennial problems that have dogged peace negotiations and that seem likely to impede nation-building endeavours for some time to come.

This article examines peace-building and governance experiences in Somaliland and the implications for Somalia.

Jama, M.A., 2003, 'Somalia and Somaliland: Strategies for Dialogue and Consensus on Governance and Democratic Transition', Paper Prepared for the UNDP Oslo Governance Centre
How can a peaceful democratic state be built out of several clan-based, faction ridden, territorial entities? This paper, prepared for the UNDP Oslo Governance Centre, examines peace building in Somaliland and looks at its experience of forging effective institutions of governance. Set in the context of a review of the collapse of Somalia as a unified state, it offers lessons and implications for Somalia as a whole.

The following paper identifies the causes of conflicts, obstacles to and prospects for peace processes across the horn of Africa, including Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia.

Nyuot Yoh, J.G., 2003, 'Peace Processes and Conflict Resolution in the Horn of Africa', African Security Review, 12(3), pp. 83-93
Discussion of the issues of war, peace and development in the Horn of Africa require critical analysis of the situation in each country (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia). How can just and lasting solutions to the conflicts in this region be found? What are the initiatives and obstructions to peace, both regionally and in each country? This paper published in the African Security Review of the Institute for Security Studies in South Africa evaluates the peace process in the region.

Sudan
Sudan has suffered one of Africa's longest civil wars. This article discusses competing perceptions of the conflict and the potential for peace.

Sudan also currently faces a humanitarian crisis and allegations of genocide in the Darfur region. This report provides background to the development of the conflict in Darfur and the key actors involved.

International Crisis Group, 2004, 'Darfur Rising: Sudan's New Crisis', ICG Africa Report No 76, ICG, Nairobi/Brussels
The Intergovernmental Authority for Development (IGAD) peace talks in Kenya between the government of Sudan and the insurgent Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) face deadlock. The steadily worsening, ethnically polarised conflict in Darfur forms the biggest threat to the IGAD peace process and the stability of the country as a whole. This paper by the International Crisis Group offers recommendations to Sudanese and international players aimed at addressing the conflict that would risk the lives of some 7 million people.


February 21, 2008 | 9:24 AM Comments  0 comments

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International, regional and UK government responses to conflict
Related to country: United Kingdom

Translations available in: English (original) | French | Spanish | Italian | German | Portuguese | Swedish | Russian | Dutch | Arabic

Efforts to prevent and manage conflict based on multilateralism and co-operation have become increasingly important since the end of the Cold War. Regional organisations and the United Nations are rapidly increasing their capacities in this area. Conflicts causes and dynamics often operate across countries, therefore requiring international responses.

Page contents

Where is a good place to start?
Regional approaches to conflict management
The international community
UK Government approaches
Additional information resources


Where is a good place to start?
The following briefing introduces ideas behind regional and international approaches to conflict prevention, describing regional African initiatives and the policies of the EU.

Alexander, L., Higazi, A. Mackie, J. et al., 2003, Regional Approaches to Conflict Prevention in Africa. European Support to African Processes, ECDPM In Brief 4, Maastricht
The situation is ripe for enhancing regional approaches to conflict prevention in Africa. This paper, published by the European Centre for Development Policy Management and International Alert, argues that the EU should adopt a broader view of regional conflict prevention by involving all stakeholders including civil society, local and multinational business and parliamentarians. A more integrated strategy is required to ensure a holistic and mutually-reinforcing approach at continental, regional, national and local levels.

Regional approaches to conflict management
Regional networks may be the most effective and legitimate external actors for conflict management. Conflicts often involve regional causes and dynamics such as insecurity and poor governance in neighbouring countries, the presence of cross-border rebel groups, and regional illegal or grey trading networks. Regional cooperation institutions, such as the Association for South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the African Union (AU), have increasingly begun to work to promote peace and stability. Approaches range from diplomacy, to peacekeeping, to regional cooperation over infrastructure and reg